In short
Hydrogen is an energy carrier, not an energy source. It has to be made first, and that takes energy. Almost all hydrogen today is fossil: from natural gas and coal, or as a by-product of refineries and chemicals. It goes mostly to refineries and the chemical industry. Low-emission hydrogen (hydrogen with little CO2 emitted) was less than 1 per cent of the total in 2025. The colours (grey, blue, green) are not official terms. Only European law has fixed definitions. Hydrogen is already used for fertiliser and refining. It is also a candidate for parts of the steel industry, ships and aircraft. For passenger cars and home heating, most of the sources below name more efficient alternatives.
What you hear: what is true?
| What you hear | Is it true? | Why |
|---|---|---|
| "Hydrogen is a clean fuel, only water comes out." | Partly true | A fuel cell releases only water. The emissions come earlier: 96 per cent of hydrogen in the EU is fossil, and that releases CO2. |
| "Most hydrogen is already green." | False | Worldwide in 2025, less than 1 per cent was low-emission hydrogen. The rest comes from natural gas, coal and by-products. |
| "Hydrogen is the future everywhere." | It depends | That is an expectation, not a fact. For fertiliser and refining, hydrogen is already needed. For passenger cars and home heating, more efficient options exist (see below). |
| "With hydrogen-ready boilers, our gas grid becomes green." | False | A boiler does not make hydrogen, it burns what the pipe brings. In Belgium the hydrogen network runs between ports and industry, not to homes. |
| "Hydrogen is the answer for long distances." | It depends | For ships and aircraft, derived fuels are the candidates (ammonia, methanol, e-fuels), not the gas itself. They are expensive and the market is still small. For lorries, the choice between battery and hydrogen is still open. |
| "Because of the battery, an electric car is no cleaner than a petrol car." | False | Over its whole life cycle, an electric car in the EU emits far less than a petrol car. The extra emissions from the battery are made up after about 17,000 to 22,000 km. |
What is hydrogen?
Hydrogen (H2) is the lightest gas. On Earth it almost never occurs pure. To use it, you have to make it from something else, such as natural gas or water.
That makes hydrogen an energy carrier, like a battery. You put energy into making it and get it back later from the gas. Some is lost at every conversion. So what it costs in energy also counts, compared with other options.
How is hydrogen made?
There are two main routes:
- From natural gas or coal. Heat and steam split the gas into hydrogen and CO2. For natural gas, this route is called "steam reforming". Without capture of the CO2, natural gas gives 10 to 12 kg of CO2 equivalent per kilo of hydrogen and coal gives 22 to 26 kg (International Energy Agency, IEA, 2024).
- From water with electricity. Electrolysis splits water into hydrogen and oxygen. The emissions depend on the electricity you use.
In 2023, world production was about 97 million tonnes (Mt). About two thirds came from natural gas without CO2 capture and about 20 per cent from coal. More than 15 per cent is a by-product of refineries and the petrochemical industry. These are rounded IEA figures and do not add up to exactly 100 per cent. Together, this production emitted about 920 Mt of CO2 (IEA, Global Hydrogen Review 2024, figures for 2023).
Demand rose to more than 100 Mt in 2025. Low-emission hydrogen grew by 20 per cent to almost 1 Mt (IEA, Global Hydrogen Review 2026, June 2026). In 2023 it came mostly from fossil fuels with CO2 capture and hardly at all from electrolysis (IEA, 2024). A split for 2025 was not found in the IEA text. The IEA expects low-emission hydrogen to pass 1 per cent of production for the first time in 2026.
In the EU, 96 per cent of hydrogen is fossil (European Parliament, 2025).
The colours of hydrogen
In the media, hydrogen gets a colour according to its route. These colours are a rule of thumb, not an official term. The IEA wrote in 2023 that there are no agreed definitions and that the colours can hide large differences in emissions. An electrolyser running on grid electricity, for example, has no colour.
- Grey: from natural gas, the CO2 goes into the air.
- Black or brown: from hard coal or lignite.
- Blue: from natural gas, with capture and storage of the CO2.
- Green: from water with renewable electricity.
- Turquoise: natural gas is heated into hydrogen and solid carbon (methane pyrolysis).
- Pink or purple: electrolysis with nuclear power.
- Yellow: the meaning differs by source: solar electricity or a mix.
- White: natural hydrogen from underground. According to the IEA (June 2026), there is one working well, in Mali. The first production could come in the 2030s. The IEA calls large-scale production before the 2040s unlikely.
Only European law has fixed terms, and they are not colours. "Renewable hydrogen" is called RFNBO ("renewable fuels of non-biological origin") and follows rules on new renewable electricity. "Low-carbon hydrogen" gives at least 70 per cent lower emissions than fossil hydrogen. In this article, "green" is the colour and "renewable hydrogen" is the European term. The rules are under debate: industry bodies ask for them to be relaxed, an NGO such as Bellona opposes that. The rules provide for a review in July 2028. In April 2026 the Commission announced an earlier, targeted revision. A proposal or an amended text was not found on 30 October 2026.
The chart shows on the left what today's hydrogen is made of and on the right what each colour promises. The share from low-emission routes is small.
Rainbow versus reality: how hydrogen is really made
The colours promise clean hydrogen, but almost all hydrogen still comes from fossil fuels or as a by-product.
Production route
- Natural gas without CO₂ capture: about 65%
- Coal without CO₂ capture: about 20%
- By-product of refineries and chemicals, and other: about 15%
In 2025 the world used more than 100 Mt H₂. Low-emissions production was almost 1 Mt H₂, less than 1% of the total.
What the colours promise
None of these colours is an official term. The IEA says there are no agreed definitions. Only EU law sets fixed terms, and they do not match any colour exactly.
- Grey
From natural gas; the CO₂ goes into the air.
common usage, not defined in law
- Black or brown
From black coal or brown coal; the CO₂ goes into the air.
common usage, not defined in law
- Blue
From natural gas, with CO₂ capture and storage. Emissions depend on how much CO₂ is captured.
close to an EU legal term
- Green
From water with renewable electricity (electrolysis).
close to an EU legal term
- Turquoise
Natural gas is heated into hydrogen and solid carbon (methane pyrolysis).
definition differs between sources
- Pink or purple
Electrolysis with electricity from nuclear power.
close to an EU legal term
- Yellow
The meaning varies: electrolysis with solar power, or with a mix of sources.
definition differs between sources
- White or natural
Hydrogen from natural deposits underground.
common usage, not defined in law
Sources
- IEA, Global Hydrogen Review 2024 (full report) (opens in a new tab) (2024 ) primary source
- IEA, Global Hydrogen Review 2024: GHG emissions of hydrogen and its derivatives (opens in a new tab) (2024 ) primary source
- IEA, Global Hydrogen Review 2024: Hydrogen production (opens in a new tab) (2024 ) primary source
- IEA, Global Hydrogen Review 2026: Executive summary (opens in a new tab) (2026 ) primary source
- IEA, Why clearer terminology for hydrogen could unlock investment and scale up production (opens in a new tab) (2023 ) primary source
- European Parliamentary Research Service, Renewable and low-carbon hydrogen: state of play and outlook (opens in a new tab) (2025 ) primary source
- Eco-Business, Explainer: the many shades of hydrogen (opens in a new tab) (2022 ) press
Our own diagram, based on the IEA Global Hydrogen Review and a briefing of the European Parliament (EPRS).
Show the figures as a table
| Route | Share (%) | Emissions |
|---|---|---|
| Natural gas without CO₂ capture | 65 | 10 to 12 kg CO₂e per kg H₂ |
| Coal without CO₂ capture | 20 | 22 to 26 kg CO₂e per kg H₂ |
| By-product of refineries and chemicals, and other | 15 | - |
Where is hydrogen used today?
Almost all hydrogen goes to existing industry, not to cars or homes. The IEA counts refining, ammonia, methanol and steel through "direct reduced iron" (DRI) as the fixed customers. Ammonia (nitrogen with hydrogen) and methanol (a liquid alcohol) together account for about half of the use.
In Europe in 2023, 57 per cent went to refineries, 25 per cent to ammonia and 11 per cent to the chemical industry (European Parliament, 2025). Ammonia is used mostly for fertiliser. Liebreich's ladder (see below) puts fertiliser on the top row: for hydrogen as a raw material, there is no real alternative.
In steel, the DRI route already uses fossil hydrogen. According to the European Parliament, low-emission hydrogen can also replace coal in blast furnaces. According to the IEA, the hydrogen price would have to be negative without support to match the current route (estimates for 2035). Customers who pay extra for "green steel" can close that gap. According to the IEA, this willingness to pay is greatest for steel and aviation.
What does hydrogen cost?
The figures differ from year to year, because the gas price matters a lot. These are European indications, not fixed prices.
- Grey hydrogen: about 2 to 3.20 euros per kilo. Hydrogen Europe, an industry body, put the cost of production at 3.20 euros in 2023 including capital costs, after 5.70 euros in 2022. Before the rise in the gas price, the cost without capital costs was 1.2 to 1.5 euros. According to the trade press, the European agency ACER gave a little over 2 euros for January to October 2025.
- Renewable hydrogen: about 7 to 10 euros per kilo. ACER gives 8 euros as the average for 2024, four times the cost of fossil hydrogen. The trade press reports 7 to 10 euros for 2025, depending on the country.
- Blue hydrogen: in between. Hydrogen Europe put it at 3.80 euros in 2023. According to the trade press, ACER gave 2.80 euros for 2025, without transport and storage of the CO2.
The IEA asks a different question: what is the most hydrogen can cost and still pay off for a customer? In its calculation for 2035, this limit is below 2 dollars per kilo without support, for most combinations of sector and region. The IEA works in dollars, the European sources above in euros (7 to 10 euros for renewable hydrogen today). These amounts cannot be compared directly. At any exchange rate of recent years, 2 dollars is still clearly below 7 euros. According to the IEA, low-emission hydrogen stays more expensive than fossil hydrogen in the short term outside China and needs support.
Hydrogen in Belgium (as of 30 October 2026)
Federal strategy. The federal government approved its strategy at the end of 2021 and updated it in October 2022. Belgium wants to become a hub for import and transit of renewable molecules. The strategy names 20 TWh (1 TWh is 1 billion kWh) of imports in 2030 and 200 to 350 TWh in 2050, including transit to neighbouring countries. It puts domestic demand in 2050 at 125 to 200 TWh. Industry and heavy transport come first. The strategy does not name buildings as a priority for hydrogen.
Flanders. The Flemish Hydrogen Vision dates from November 2020. The coalition agreement of September 2024 announces an update. A published update is not confirmed. On 17 July 2026 the Flemish Government approved in principle a draft amending decree. The draft went for advice to, among others, the Minaraad (Flemish environment council), the SERV (Flemish socio-economic council) and the Vlaamse Nutsregulator (Flemish energy regulator). It provides a regulatory framework for hydrogen distribution networks and a step-by-step phase-out of the natural gas distribution network with mandatory decommissioning plans. It is not yet a decree.
Port of Antwerp-Bruges. According to a press release of October 2022, the port wants to become the "hydrogen hub" of Western Europe. Together with DEME, Engie, Exmar, Fluxys (gas network operator) and WaterstofNet (Flemish knowledge centre), it forms an import coalition. In 2022 it expected to be able to receive the first molecules of green hydrogen from 2026. Whether they arrived in 2026 is not confirmed.
Pipelines. In Europe there are 16 dedicated hydrogen pipelines, 1,564 km in total, mostly for the chemical industry (European Parliament, early 2025). For the existing industrial network in Belgium, no length with a source was found. Fluxys has been building a new hydrogen network since early 2025. On 28 September 2026, Fluxys reported that the 14 km network in the port of Antwerp is technically ready and available to the market. The 34 km between Zelzate and Kallo is due to be ready in spring 2027. In 2022 the federal strategy aimed for 100 to 160 km by 2026. Fluxys writes that the regulatory framework for hydrogen is still being worked out. According to De Tijd and L'Echo, quoted by New Mobility News (August 2026), there are no binding contracts with customers yet. There is no official confirmation.
Production. Fluxys is preparing for the end of 2026 the connection of HyOffwind in Zeebrugge to the natural gas network. According to Fluxys, this is the first large-scale installation in Belgium for renewable hydrogen.
The ladder: where does hydrogen fit best?
The analyst Michael Liebreich (Liebreich Associates, a consultancy) made the "Clean Hydrogen Ladder". It ranks uses from A (top, no real alternative) to G (bottom, "Row of Doom"). Version 5.0 appeared on 20 October 2023. A newer version than 5.0 was not found on 30 October 2026. In May 2026 Liebreich himself wrote that version 6.0 is "long overdue".
This is the ranking of one analyst on the basis of criteria set in advance, not a measurement. He estimates how likely it is that hydrogen or a derivative plays an important role around 2035. He weighs cost, safety, convenience and raw materials. The ladder does not show market size, growth rate or emission gain per kilo.
In the chart, the colour of each use shows which alternative Liebreich sees: electricity or batteries, biomass or biogas, or none. A fourth, grey category, "other", covers long-duration grid balancing and biogas upgrading.
The hydrogen ladder: where hydrogen really makes sense
A ranking of uses: on rung A there is no real alternative, on rung G there are better alternatives.
The ladder is one analyst's ranking, not a measurement. Market size, speed of adoption and emissions reduction per kg do not count. The ladder estimates how likely it is that a use will be a significant user of hydrogen around 2035.
What is the alternative?
- No real alternative
- Electricity or batteries
- Biomass or biogas
- Other
-
Rung A
No alternative (this does not mean the use is growing)
- Fertiliser , No real alternative
- Hydrogenation , No real alternative
- Methanol , Biomass or biogas
- Hydrocracking , No real alternative
- Desulphurisation , No real alternative
-
Rung B
A decent market share is highly likely
- Shipping* , Biomass or biogas
- Jet aviation** , Biomass or biogas
- Chemical feedstock , Biomass or biogas
- Steel , Electricity or batteries
- Long-duration grid balancing , Other
-
Rung C
Some market share is likely
- Coastal and river vessels , Biomass or biogas
- Non-road mobile machinery , Biomass or biogas
- Vintage and muscle cars** , Biomass or biogas
- Biogas upgrading , Other
-
Rung D
A small market share is plausible
- Long-distance trucks and coaches , Electricity or batteries
- High-temperature industrial heat , Electricity or batteries
- Generators , Biomass or biogas
-
Rung E
A niche market is possible
- Regional trucks , Electricity or batteries
- Commercial heating*** , Electricity or batteries
- Island grids , Electricity or batteries
- Short-duration grid balancing , Electricity or batteries
-
Rung F
A niche market in some regions is possible
- Light aviation , Electricity or batteries
- Remote and rural trains , Electricity or batteries
- Local ferries , Electricity or batteries
- Light trucks , Electricity or batteries
- Bulk power imports , Electricity or batteries
- Backup power (UPS) , Electricity or batteries
-
Rung G
The row of doom
- Metro trains and buses , Electricity or batteries
- Urban delivery and taxis , Electricity or batteries
- 2 and 3-wheelers , Electricity or batteries
- Cars , Electricity or batteries
- Bulk e-fuels , Electricity or batteries
- Mid and low-temperature industrial heat , Electricity or batteries
- Domestic heating , Electricity or batteries
- Power generation using non-stored hydrogen , Electricity or batteries
- * as ammonia or methanol
- ** as e-fuel or PBTL
- *** as a hybrid system
Source
- Michael Liebreich, Hydrogen Ladder Version 5.0 (opens in a new tab) (Michael Liebreich/Liebreich Associates (concept: Adrian Hiel, Energy Cities), version 5.0, 2023 , CC BY 4.0 (opens in a new tab) ) company
Adapted and translated.
Our own diagram, based on the Clean Hydrogen Ladder by Liebreich Associates.
Show the figures as a table
| Rung | Use | Alternative |
|---|---|---|
| A | Fertiliser | No real alternative |
| A | Hydrogenation | No real alternative |
| A | Methanol | Biomass or biogas |
| A | Hydrocracking | No real alternative |
| A | Desulphurisation | No real alternative |
| B | Shipping * | Biomass or biogas |
| B | Jet aviation ** | Biomass or biogas |
| B | Chemical feedstock | Biomass or biogas |
| B | Steel | Electricity or batteries |
| B | Long-duration grid balancing | Other |
| C | Coastal and river vessels | Biomass or biogas |
| C | Non-road mobile machinery | Biomass or biogas |
| C | Vintage and muscle cars ** | Biomass or biogas |
| C | Biogas upgrading | Other |
| D | Long-distance trucks and coaches | Electricity or batteries |
| D | High-temperature industrial heat | Electricity or batteries |
| D | Generators | Biomass or biogas |
| E | Regional trucks | Electricity or batteries |
| E | Commercial heating *** | Electricity or batteries |
| E | Island grids | Electricity or batteries |
| E | Short-duration grid balancing | Electricity or batteries |
| F | Light aviation | Electricity or batteries |
| F | Remote and rural trains | Electricity or batteries |
| F | Local ferries | Electricity or batteries |
| F | Light trucks | Electricity or batteries |
| F | Bulk power imports | Electricity or batteries |
| F | Backup power (UPS) | Electricity or batteries |
| G | Metro trains and buses | Electricity or batteries |
| G | Urban delivery and taxis | Electricity or batteries |
| G | 2 and 3-wheelers | Electricity or batteries |
| G | Cars | Electricity or batteries |
| G | Bulk e-fuels | Electricity or batteries |
| G | Mid and low-temperature industrial heat | Electricity or batteries |
| G | Domestic heating | Electricity or batteries |
| G | Power generation using non-stored hydrogen | Electricity or batteries |
Source: Michael Liebreich/Liebreich Associates, Clean Hydrogen Ladder, Version 5.0, 2023. Concept credit: Adrian Hiel, Energy Cities. CC-BY 4.0. Adapted and translated.
What supporters answer. On 1 February 2023, Liebreich debated in his podcast with Jorgo Chatzimarkakis, the CEO of Hydrogen Europe. The description of that episode on Liebreich's own Substack sets the two views against each other like this: the guest sees hydrogen as "the miracle molecule of the transition", the ladder has "a far narrower view". That is the description from Liebreich's side, not a quote from the guest. Hydrogen Europe, the industry association, expects in a position paper of July 2025 (not a reply to the ladder) that hydrogen plays an essential role in decarbonising energy-intensive industry, alongside transport and long-term storage, and names fertilisers, refineries, steel and chemicals as sectors that will need large volumes of clean hydrogen. Respect My Planet, a US non-profit site that defends fuel cells, holds that batteries and fuel cells complement each other. The site wrote that about version 4.1 of the ladder. It also points to a possible conflict of interest on Liebreich's part.
National plans also differ from the ladder. The Belgian federal strategy puts industry and heavy transport first and names the electricity sector as the next step, for flexibility. According to the IEA, the use of hydrogen for power generation happens mostly in Japan and South Korea. The number of fuel cell vehicles grew by 20 per cent in 2025 to almost 130,000, through lorries in China and car sales in South Korea.
Cars
The article "Electric, petrol, diesel or hydrogen: which pollutes more?" works this out. Over its whole life cycle, a mid-size electric car in the EU emits 63 to 70 grams of CO2 equivalent per km, depending on the electricity scenario, against 235 grams for petrol (ICCT, July 2025). The extra emissions from the battery are made up after about 17,000 to 22,000 km.
A hydrogen car loses more energy on the way than an electric car. Of the electricity at the power station, according to Agora Energiewende, 69 per cent is left at the wheel for an electric car, 26 per cent for a fuel cell car and 13 per cent for a car on e-fuel. In Belgium there are eight public hydrogen stations, none in Limburg (H2Benelux, 30 October 2026).
Heating homes
The article "Heat pump: is your home ready?" explains what you can do. Below is why most sources see little role for hydrogen in it. A heat pump gives about 3 units of heat per unit of electricity (2.8 to 3.4 in field trials). According to Jan Rosenow, hydrogen heating needs five to six times more electricity for the same heat. He said this in an interview with IEEE Spectrum about his review of 32 studies in the journal Joule (2022). We did not read the Joule article itself. He included only studies that were not made by or for industry. Our own calculation in that article gives 4.6 to 9.5 times more electricity, with a central value of just over 6. It builds on figures from the Clean Hydrogen Partnership and the European Hydrogen Backbone. The ranges differ because the inputs for the efficiency of the heat pump and of the hydrogen chain (electrolysis, compression, transport, boiler) differ.
"Hydrogen-ready" means that a boiler can handle hydrogen later. It says nothing about what is in the pipe. As long as no hydrogen flows to homes, such a boiler burns natural gas.
What about industry, ships and aircraft?
Where electrification is hard, hydrogen and derived fuels count as candidates: ammonia, methanol and e-fuels. E-fuels are made from hydrogen (and CO2).
- Steel and chemicals: see above. Low-emission hydrogen stays expensive here without a CO2 price or a customer who pays more.
- Ships: according to the IEA, it is uncertain whether the framework of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) will be introduced. European rules mostly decide the choice.
- Aircraft: the European ReFuelEU regulation requires 1.2 per cent synthetic fuel in 2030 and 2031, 2 per cent from 2032 to 2034, 5 per cent in 2035 and 35 per cent in 2050. According to the IEA, this is the only policy pressure. It has little effect on ticket prices this decade.
The ladder puts "Shipping" (as ammonia or methanol) and "Jet Aviation" (as e-fuel) on row B. Liebreich expects a fair share of the market on that row, but through derived fuels and not as a gas.
Storage over long periods
Batteries mostly absorb fast swings. For weeks or seasons, another solution is needed. The Royal Society (the UK's national academy of sciences) calculated in 2023 that the United Kingdom will need up to 100 TWh of storage in 2050, about a quarter of its current annual electricity use. According to the Royal Society, storing hydrogen in salt caverns is the cheapest way. Batteries and pumped hydro are not enough there.
For Belgium this does not simply apply. According to New Mobility News (August 2026), Belgium, unlike the Netherlands and Germany, has no salt caverns for large-scale storage. There is no official confirmation. Liebreich calls anything above about two days "long duration". He puts "long duration grid balancing" on row B and short-term balancing on row E.
What now?
- For every claim, check where the hydrogen comes from: natural gas, natural gas with CO2 capture or renewable electricity.
- Are you replacing a gas or oil boiler? Compare a heat pump too. Read "Heat pump: is your home ready?".
- Are you choosing a car? Compare the emissions over its whole life. Read "Electric, petrol, diesel or hydrogen: which pollutes more?".
- Does someone say a "hydrogen-ready" appliance makes the gas grid green? Ask which pipe brings the hydrogen to your house and when.
Sources and disclaimer
This text is based on:
- IEA, Global Hydrogen Review 2026 (June 2026), with the chapters Production, Demand, Key questions and Cost acceptability.
- IEA, Global Hydrogen Review 2024, for the production of 2023: Hydrogen production, GHG emissions and the full pdf (shares of natural gas, coal and by-product). We read the IEA pages of 2026 through archived copies, because iea.org blocks automatic access.
- IEA, Why clearer terminology for hydrogen could unlock investment (June 2023).
- European Parliament (EPRS), Renewable and low-carbon hydrogen (February 2025). The cost figures in it come from Hydrogen Europe, an industry body.
- ACER, European hydrogen markets 2025 and pv magazine on that report (December 2025). Trade press, not a primary source.
- Eco-Business, explainer on the colours (2022). Trade press.
- Bellona, position on the RFNBO rules (2026). NGO.
- WaterstofNet on the Commission's AccelerateEU plan (April 2026) and Argus Media on the timing of that revision (July 2026). Knowledge centre and trade press. The regulation itself was not consulted.
- Fluxys Belgium, results for the first half of 2026 (28 September 2026). A network operator with its own interest.
- New Mobility News (17 August 2026). Trade press that quotes De Tijd and L'Echo.
- Federal Hydrogen Strategy, update of October 2022. Copy on kenniswest.be.
- Flemish Government, decision of 17 July 2026 and WaterstofNet, Statusrapport 2024. WaterstofNet is a Flemish knowledge centre for the sector.
- Maritime Professional on the Port of Antwerp-Bruges (October 2022). Trade press, based on a press release from the port.
- Michael Liebreich, Hydrogen Ladder Version 5.0 (20 October 2023), The Electrification Staircase is go (9 May 2026) and the conversation with Hydrogen Europe (February 2023). Liebreich Associates is a consultancy. The licence is CC BY 4.0.
- Hydrogen Europe, The case of Green Lead Markets (position paper, July 2025). Industry association.
- Respect My Planet, criticism of ladder 4.1 (2022). Advocate for fuel cells.
- ICCT, Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions from passenger cars in the EU (July 2025), Agora Energiewende, efficiency of drive routes and H2Benelux, hydrogen stations.
- IEEE Spectrum, interview with Rosenow about his review in Joule (2022). The Joule article itself was not consulted.
- Royal Society, Large-scale electricity storage (September 2023) and EU Clean Hydrogen Observatory on ReFuelEU Aviation.
This is general information, not personal advice. Figures and rules can change. As of 30 October 2026.
Author: Wouter Hermans
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